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In France, while the 2004 ban of religious signs in public schools was motivated by laicite (French version of secularism), the burqa ban is in fact the result of growing security concerns. The wave of Islamist terrorist attacks in Paris, Manchester, and London in the last couple of years has cemented the idea that conservative practices of Islam (especially about gender segregation and sexual minorities) are a sign of radical ideology, hence leading to the 2018 ban (which was in the work for some years before that date). Such a discriminatory procedure however raised a lot of protests and was later removed, although the test abroad in the countries of origin has been maintained. As part of the test materials, applicants had to watch a video entitled, “Coming to the Netherlands,” which included images of gay men kissing and topless women lying on the beach. in the sending countries, in contrast to standard tests performed in the receiving country, not to mention that these tests abroad were implemented in priority in Muslim countries. In itself, the test abroad is atypical since it aims at limiting immigration at the source, i.e. For example, in the Netherlands in 2006, candidates for emigration had to pass at the Dutch embassy in their country of origin, a “civic integration test abroad” ( inburgeringsexamen buitenland). Since 9/11, standard civic integration tests have been modified to include cultural and religious questions to assess the ability of Muslim immigrants to accept liberal secular values. The burqa bans are therefore part of a shift in policies motivated by security concerns, as the examples below on immigration and naturalization procedures illustrate.Įven before 9/11, measures have been taken by all European countries to restrict immigration flows by raising the requirements newcomers must meet.
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As a consequence, security concerns blur the line between international and domestic policies, since regular policy-making-from education to economic integration-are increasingly interpreted through the lens of the War on Terror. In fact, they are perceived not as believers but as promoters of a global ideology which from Europe to Iraq is seen as a threat to European nations.
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When Muslims assert their religious affiliation through dress code and engagement in public religious activities, they become politically suspect. I have argued that beyond the visibility of the exceptional measures, securitization influences administrative routine and regular legislation and therefore negatively affects the exercise of religious freedom (see Cesari: 2013). Securitization usually refers to exceptional political acts like increased military presence or police controls, taken by governments, in violation of the rule of law, as a way to preserve the security of citizens against attacks or destruction. Intercultural and Interreligious Dialogue Topic
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